Table 4 Outcomes, measures and main results

Ahmed et al., 2023 [36]

gait velocity

step cycle

step length

3-min walking test (3MWT)

Both groups increased post-treatment walking speed, step cycle, step length, percentage of time on each foot and ambulation index

Improvement in gait parameters was significantly higher in the study group compared to the controls (p < 0.05)

Bunketorp-Käll et al.,

2017 [16]

gait ability

balance

Timed Up&Go

Berg Balance Scale

Bäckstrand, Dahlberg and Liljenäs Balance Scale (BDL-BS)

Differences between music-based therapy and control group

No differences between music-based therapy and horse-riding therapy

Music-based therapy improved balance more after 6 months

Bunketorp-Käll et al.,

2019 [19]

gait capacity

gait speed

10-m walk test

6 min walk test

Differences between music-based therapy and control group in gait capacity

No differences between baseline and reassessment with music-based therapy in gait speed

Significant improvement at 6-month follow up for gait capacity in the horse-riding therapy compared to control group

Cha H. et al., 2014 [19]

gait velocity

cadence

stride length on the ispilesional side

stride length on the contralesional side

gait symmetry

GAITRite system

Gait velocity, cadence, and stride length on the contralesional side were significantly decreased under the RAS − 10% conditions

Gait velocity and cadence were significantly improved, but gait symmetry was significantly decreased under the RAS + 10% and + 20% conditions compared with under the RAS 0% conditions

Cha Y. et al., 2014 [18]

gait performance

postural control

GAITRite

Berg Balance Scale

multifunction force measuring plate

Significant improvement in the RAS group for gait performance and postural control compared to control

Cho et al., 2020 [20]

static balance

dynamic balance

Biodex Balance System

Significant improvements in both groups for static and dynamic balance, but a greater degree of changes were observed in the action-observation training group than those in the control group

Choi et al., 2021 [21]

gait ability

static balance ability

dynamic balance ability

Functional Gait Assessment

10 m walk test

Berg Balance Scale

Balancia software (velocity, path length and sway area)

RAS group showed a greater difference in the amount of change in every gait and balance ability assessment compared to the control group

Chouhan et al., 2012 [22]

dynamic balance

upper extremity motor control

Dynamic gait index

Fugl Meyer motor assessment

RAS improved gross motor, fine motor, and gait imbalance more than conventional group

RAS and visual cueing were equally effective in improving gross motor, fine motor, and gait imbalance

Collimore et al., 2023 [35]

step time

stance time

swing time

gait symmetry

energetic cost of walking

Real-time gait analysis with a 18-camera motion analysis system at 200 Hz

Oxygen consumption (VO2) data were collected on a breath-by-breath basis (Cosmed© K5, Rome, Italy)

Post-treatment reductions in step time, stance time and swing time asymmetries were observed. A reduction in the energetic cost of walking was obtained and detected to be strongly dependent on the degree of baseline energetic impairment

Elsner et al., 2019 [23]

walking capacity

walking velocity

stride length

balance

6 min walk test

10 m walk test

Berg Balance Test

RAS and control group did not differ significantly on walking capacity, walking velocity, stride length or balance

Gonzalez-Hoelling et al., 2021 [24]

gait and balance parameters

trunk control

walking ability

functional independence

stroke severity and disability

Timed Up& Go Test

Tinetti Test

Functional Ambulation Category

assistive devices

Functional Independence Measure

Barthel Index

modified Rankin Scale

National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS)

No between-group differences were identified for gait and balance parameters nor for secondary outcomes

Music-based RAS improved in the Functional Ambulation Category more than the control group

Hutchinson et al., 2020 [25]

safety

feasibility

walking speed

walking cadence

10 m walk test

optical motion capture system (Qualisys AB)

Safety was reported with no falls

Increases in walking speed and walking cadence

Kim et al., 2012 [26]

dynamic balance

gait ability

spatiotemporal parameters of gait

Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC) Scale,

Dynamic Gait Index (DGI),

Four Square Step Test (FSST), Functional Ambulation Category (FAC), Timed Up&Go test (TUG test)

Up stair and Down stair times

GAITRite system

Increases in dynamic balance and spatiotemporal gait parameters were observed in both groups

Compared with the control group, the RAS group showed significant improvements in scores on the ABC scale, DGI, TUG, and Up stair and Down stair times

Ko et al., 2016 [27]

cadence

speed

stride length

gait cycle duration

step length

G-Walk

GAITRite system

After gait training with rhythmic auditory stimulation, gait speed, cadence, stride length, gait cycle duration, and step length of the contra and ipsilesional sides improved significantly compared to baseline

Kobinata et al., 2016 [28]

gait cadence

velocity

stride length

gait balance

10 m walk test

Pre- versus post-test measures revealed significant increases in velocity and stride length in the cerebellum, pons and medulla, and thalamus groups

Lee et al., 2018 [29]

gait symmetry

gait ability

balance ability

lower extremity function

gait analysis system (OptoGait)

Timed Up&Go test (TUG)

Berg Balance Scale (BBS)

Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA)

Gait symmetry on step time significantly improved more in the gait training with bilateral rhythmic auditory stimulation group than in the control group

The gait training with bilateral rhythmic auditory stimulation group showed significantly greater improvement in gait ability than the control group

Both groups showed significant improvements, but did not differ significantly, in the Timed Up&Go test (TUG), Berg Balance Scale (BBS), and Fugl–Meyer Assessment (FMA) compared to baseline

Mainka et al., 2018 [30]

gait velocity

cadence

stride length

gait symmetry

endurance

postural stability

fast gait speed test (FGS)

locometre (LOC)

3-min walking test (3MWT)

instrumental evaluation of balance (IEB)

Significant group differences in the FGS for adjusted post-measures in gait velocity and cadence

Stride length results did not vary between the groups. LOC, 3MWT, and IEB did not indicate group differences

Song et al., 2016 [31]

Gait ability

cadence

step length

functional gait ability

10 m walk test

GAITRite analysis system

Dynamic Gait Index

Both groups improved, but RAS group showed more significant increase in cadence, step length, 10 m walk test, and dynamic gait index

Suh et al., 2014 [32]

gait velocity

stride length

cadence

standing balance

10 m walk test

Biodex balance system (BBS) of Biosway®

Significant improvement in RAS group for gait velocity, stride length, cadence, overall stability index, mediolateral index and anteroposterior index over the control group

Wang Y et al., 2021 [33]

walking ability

lower extremity motor function

balance ability

degree of treatment satisfaction

FreeStep gait analyzer

Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA)

Berg Balance Scale (BBS)

Stroke rehabilitation treatment satisfaction questionnaire

Stride length, cadence and maximum velocity were higher in the music therapy group compared to the control group

The difference in step length between the contralesional side and healthy side was significantly lower in the music therapy group than in the control group

The FMA and BBS scores were significantly higher in the study group than in the control group

The music therapy group had a significantly higher satisfaction rate than the control group

Yang et al., 2016 [34]

static balance

dynamic balance and gait ability

spatiotemporal gait parameters

Blancia (wii Balance board)

Timed Up&Go Test

GAITRite system

Significant differences in static balance and the Timed Up&Go Test were observed in the Real-time auditory stimulation feedback group compared with the control group

The real-time auditory stimulation feedback group showed significant improvements in gait speed, step length and stride length, single limb support percentage of the contralesional side, and gait asymmetry compared with the control group