Prevalence, determinants and outcomes of traditional, complementary and alternative medicine use for hypertension among low-income households in Malaysia and the Philippines

Table 5 Associations of TCAM use with hypertension outcomes and wellbeing (odds ratios or regression coefficients with [95% confidence intervals])

Binary outcomes	Philippines		Malaysia
Binary outcomes	Crude odds ratio	Adjusted odds ratio	Crude odds ratio	Adjusted odds ratio
Current antihypertensive medication use	1.05 [0.58, 1.91]	1.07 [0.56, 2.06]	0.41 [0.18, 0.91]	1.00 [0.32, 3.12]
Antihypertensive medication adherence⁺	0.75 [0.42, 1.36]	0.67 [0.34, 1.31]	0.28 [0.03, 2.59]	0.30 [0.02, 3.89]
Hypertension control	0.68 [0.37, 1.24]	0.75 [0.40, 1.42]	0.55 [0.23, 1.32]	0.69 [0.27, 1.77]
Continuous outcomes	Crude coefficient	Adjusted coefficient	Crude coefficient	Adjusted coefficient
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	1.97 [-3.80, 7.74]	0.19 [-5.50, 5.88]	8.97 [0.06, 17.88]	3.35 [-5.40, 12.09]
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	0.91 [-2.50, 4.32]	0.23 [-3.07, 3.52]	4.96 [-0.38, 10.30]	1.29 [-3.61, 6.18]
Wellbeing (1–10, most to least satisfied)	0.23 [-0.41, 0.88]	0.37 [-0.28, 1.03]	-0.05 [-0.57, 0.48]	-0.16 [-0.69, 0.37]

⁺Model for adherence is restricted to participants who reported current use of antihypertensive medication. No evidence from Wald tests for the equality of adjusted coefficients by country in the combined dataset was noted. All models are adjusted for belief in the effectiveness of TCAM and conventional medicine for hypertension, knowledge of hypertension, time since diagnosed with hypertension, history of NCD comorbidity, frequency of health provider visits, sex, age, education, marital/co-habitation status, employment, confidence in health system, belief that one can do something to maintain health, urban–rural location, household wealth. Models assessing the association between hypertension control, systolic and diastolic blood pressure and wellbeing and TCAM use are further adjusted for current use of antihypertensive medication. Appendix 5 in the Supplemental information provides the full results for each model
^*p < 0.05
^**p < 0.01
^***p < 0.001

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